Prestressing effect of shape memory alloy reinforcements under serviceability tensile loads

Repairing and strengthening of existing aged steel-reinforced concrete structures is a major challenge. Today, much of the repair work completed is insufficient and brittle. A promising new solution for repair and strengthening tasks is the use of iron-based shape memory alloy (Fe-SMA). The pre-strained Fe-SMA components enable the pre-stressing of existing building components due to the heat-triggered contraction of the steel. Thus, deflections can be reduced or even recovered. In addition, the cracking process can be adapted, and an improvement in the load, under which the first crack appears, is possible. In this paper, the effects of pre-stress generated by activated Fe-SMA rebars, which were centrally embedded inside of a concrete specimen, are shown. The objective of the study is to quantify the improvement in the loads of the first crack and show the influences of the pre-stressing on the load-bearing behavior and the cracking process. For this purpose, axial tensile tests were performed on concrete bars with height, width, and length of 50 mm, 70 mm, and 900 mm, respectively. These were compared to usual construction steel rebars, pre-strained but nonactivated Fe-SMA rebars, and activated Fe-SMA steel rebars. The evaluation of crack patterns and openings was done using digital image correlation (DIC). The pre-stressing of the concrete causes an increase in the first crack loads of more than 150%, which indicates a clear improvement in the state of serviceability limit

Influence of activation temperature and prestress on behavior of Fe-SMA bonded joints

The prestressed strengthening of structures via use of bonded iron-based shape memory alloys (Fe-SMAs) has proven promising, albeit with concerns regarding the temperature dependency of the adhesive properties. In this study, the effect of activation temperature and generated prestress are investigated experimentally. Six Fe-SMA-to-steel adhesively bonded joints, comprising different Fe-SMA strips (non-prestrained and prestrained) and activation strategies (full activation and partial activation), were prepared, activated via electrical resistance heating, and tested under quasi-static loading. It is found that the bond–slip behavior of a joint with activation can be modeled by that of an equivalent non-activated joint. The generated prestress influences the full-range behavior by raising the base tensile stress level of the Fe-SMA strip, with negligible effects on further aspects of the full-range behavior. With the increasing activation temperature, the fracture energy is initially increased and eventually reduced, while the bond capacity and effective bond length are retained almost constant

Thermo-mechanical properties of commercially available epoxy resins for structural applications

Externally bonded (EB) or Near-Surface-Mounted (NSM) composite reinforcements are often bonded to a cementitious substrate by means of commercially available epoxies. These twocomponent- resins are generally ‘cold-curing’ (at room temperature), having however the ability to cure faster under elevated temperatures. One application requesting such an accelerated curing process is the gradient anchorage for strengthening of concrete structures with prestressed CFRP laminates, based on a purely concrete/epoxy/CFRP connection without any mechanical devices. This paper resumes the investigation on several crucial thermo-mechanical parameters of different epoxy resins, such as glass-transition temperatures, directional tensile strength and elastic modulus. It is for instance demonstrated that an accelerated curing process or an increasing specimen age implicate a higher glass transition temperature. Strength and stiffness development is faster in case high temperatures are applied; the final values with growing age however are below the ones for specimens cured only at room temperature. Initial mixing under vacuum on the other hand induces higher strength and stiffness values. Eventually, it is shown that an accelerated curing of a cold-curing epoxy increases the porosity of the latter, possibly implying durability issues

Comparison of bending stiffness of cross-laminated solid timber derived by modal analysis of full panels and by bending tests ofstrip-shaped specimens

The design of cross-laminated solid timber (CLT) as load-bearing plates is mainly governed by serviceability criterions like maximal deflection and susceptibility to vibration. Hence, predicting the respective behavior of such plates requires accurate information about their elastic properties. According to product standards, the bending stiffness of CLT has to be assessed from 4-point bending tests of strip-shaped specimens, cut from the CLT panels. By comparing elastic properties of CLT derived by means of modal analysis of full panels with the results of bending tests on 100mm and 300mm wide strip-shaped specimens it is shown, that by testing single 100mm wide strip-shaped specimens bending stiffness of full panels cannot be assessed correctly, whereas single 300mm wide strips or averages of 5 to 6 100mm wide strip-shaped specimens lead to acceptable results. Hence, strip-shaped specimens should only be used in the course of factory quality control or when assessing the bending stiffness of parts of CLT panels used as beam-like load-bearing elements but not to derive bending stiffness of gross CLT panels. Verification by carrying out static bending tests of gross CLT panels under different loading situations showed that alternatively to tests on strip-shaped specimens or estimations with the compound theory, the overall stiffness properties of CLT can be derived directly by a modal analysis of full-size panel

Structural strengthening with prestressed CFRP strips with gradient anchorage

ManuscriptThis paper presents the principle and the application of an innovative anchorage technique for prestressed carbon fiber–reinforced polymer (CFRP) strips in structural strengthening. Additionally, large-scale static loading tests of retrofitted concrete beams are shown. The gradient anchorage, based on the adhesive’s ability to undergo accelerated curing at high temperatures, consists of a purely concrete-adhesive strip connection without any mechanical devices, such as bolts or plates. In a first step, this study summarizes anchorage techniques presented in the literature and introduces the basic principles of the new method as well as the necessary components. In a second step, an application on a full-scale RC beam is explained in detail. A commercially-available CFRP strip is prestressed up to 0.6% prestrain and subsequently anchored by sequential epoxy-curing and force-releasing steps at both strip ends. Furthermore, uniaxial tensile tests on the epoxy adhesive and the CFRP strip are used for material characterization and to demonstrate the reinforcing materials’ integrity after the heating process. It appeared that prestress losses during the anchoring phase are negligible. The method allows much faster installation than conventional mechanical techniques and increases durability because no permanent steel elements are necessary. The material tests indicate no damage in the reinforcing CFRP strip as well as a sufficiently fast strength development of the adhesive after accelerated curing. Static loading tests on strengthened large-scale RC beams are presented and show the efficiency of a prestressed CFRP strip with gradient anchorage as a retrofitting technique. Finally, first long-term measurements over 13 years on a prestressed strip bonded to a concrete plate revealed small prestrain losses.The authors want to thank the Swiss innovation promotion agency (CTI project No. 10493.2 PFIW-IW) as well as the industrial partner S&P Clever Reinforcement from Switzerland for their financial support. Furthermore, the staff of the Structural Engineering Testing Laboratory at Empa as well as from University of Minho is kindly thanked for their contributions to the experimental investigations. Particular acknowledgements are expressed to Milos Dimic for the CAD Inventor drawings as well as Professor Fernando Castro from the Department of Mechanical Engineering of the University of Minho for the SEM images. The second author would like to thank the Fundaao para a Ciencia e a Tecnologia (Foundation for the Science and Technology/Portugal), grant SFRH/BSAB/1220/2011 for providing financial support in the context of his sabbatical year

Mechanical performance of cold-curing epoxy adhesives after different mixing and curing procedures

This paper presents strength, stiffness, and porosity characteristics of commercially available cold-curing epoxy adhesives for structural engineering applications in the field of externally bonded and/or near-surface mounted composite strip reinforcements. Depending on specific requirements, accelerated curing of the adhesive under high temperatures might be necessary. Experimental investigations aimed at assessing the possible differences in strength and stiffness between samples cured at elevated temperatures for a defined time span and the ones cured at room temperature. It could be demonstrated that for the same specimen age, nominal tensile strength and stiffness are lower after an initial accelerated curing process at elevated temperatures. Furthermore, it could be shown that the specimens after an accelerated curing at elevated temperatures exhibited an increased porosity. The development of a numerical code for image analysis allowed a detailed inspection of several fracture surfaces and subsequently to assess the level of decrease in available cross-section due to an increased overall porosity. Cross-section area losses in the range of 10–15% compared to the reference specimens could be deduced. The subsequent derivation of the actual tensile strength exhibits smaller differences between the room and high temperature exposed specimens while curing. Regardless of the short-term material strength, the observed porosity might be subject of important durability issues on a long-term and needs further investigation.FEDER funds through the Operational Program for Competitiveness Factors - COMPETE and National Funds through FCT - Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology under the projects FRPreDur FCOMP- 01-0124-FEDER-028865 (FCT no. PTDC/ECM-EST/2424/2012)The authors want to express their gratitude to Max Heusser and Milos Dimic (Empa, CH) for their assistance in the experimental investigation. Marcel Rees, Iurii Burda and Andrea Battisti (Empa, CH) are kindly acknowledged for their assistance with the vacuum mixer and the sample preparation for porosity assessment. Eventually, Esther Strub (Empa, CH) is acknowledged for the instructions about the miscroscope utilization. Distributors S&P Clever Reinforcement AG (CH) and Sika (CH) are also acknowledged for their material provision. This work is also supported by FEDER funds through the Operational Program for Competitiveness Factors - COMPETE and National Funds through FCT - Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology under the projects FRPreDur FCOMP- 01-0124-FEDER-028865 (FCT no. PTDC/ECM-EST/2424/2012)

Versuche und Berechnungen an allseitig gelagerten 3-schichtigen Brettsperrholzplatten

Zusammenfassung: Im Rahmen eines umfangreichen Forschungsprojektes wurden Brettsperrholzplatten (BSP), die im Bauwesen auch als statisch tragende Bauteile eingesetzt werden, untersucht. Quadratische dreischichtige BSP mit Seitenlänge 2,5m und Dicke 70mm von zwei Herstellern wurden statisch senkrecht zur Plattenebene bis zum Bruch geprüft. Untersucht wurden drei verschiedene Laststellungen und zwei Querschnittsaufbauten. Ultraschallmessungen an den Einzelschichten vor der Verklebung dienten zur Schätzung der Elastizitätsmoduln der Einzelschichten. Die Elastizitätsmoduln und Festigkeiten der verklebten Platten parallel und senkrecht zur Faserrichtung der Deckschicht wurden zusätzlich in Balkenversuchen ermittelt. Ergebnisse und Erkenntnisse aus den Ultraschallmessungen, Balken- und Plattenversuchen werden präsentiert. Verschiedenste Balken- und Platten-Berechnungsmodelle für die BSP werden vorgestellt. Die Versuchsresultate werden mit den Berechnungen verglichen. Ein Berechnungsvorschlag für die Praxis wird präsentier

Recent contributions from UMinho and Empa on durability issues of flexural strengthening of RC slab with EB CFRP laminates

Common research activities in the field of durability of prestressed externally bonded reinforcement (EBR) for reinforced concrete (RC) structures were carried out at both the University of Minho (UMinho) and the Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology (Empa). The research includes the study of the durability of (i) the constituent materials (concrete, epoxy and CFRP laminate) and (ii) large-scale RC slabs strengthened with prestressed CFRP laminates with two different anchorage systems (mechanical anchorage and the gradient anchorage), when subjected to different environmental conditions. The main achievements for a better understanding of the durability of RC elements strengthened with prestressed EBR-FRPs are presented in this paper. Finally, the effect of polymer sealings and asphalt application at high temperatures on CFRP/epoxy/concrete connections is also briefly discussed.This work was supported by the following programs: FEDER (European Funds for Regional Development) funds through the Operational Program for Competitiveness Factors – COMPETE, Operational Program for Competitiveness and Internationalization (POCI) and National Funds through FCT - Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology under the projects CutInDur FCOMP-01-0124-FEDER-014811 (PTDC/ECM/112396/2009), FRPreDur FCOMP-01-0124-FEDER-028865 (FCT reference PTDC/ECM-EST/2424/2012), FRPLongDur POCI-01-0145-FEDER-016900 (FCT reference PTDC/ECM-EST/1282/2014) and POCI-01- 0145-FEDER-007633. From the Swiss side, The Swiss Road Authorities (FEDRO) and the Swiss National Science Foundation are kindly thanked for their financial support (AGB2012/001 and SNSF No.124401). The authors also like to thank: S&P Clever Reinforcement Ibérica Lda, S&P Clever Reinforcement Company (Switzerland), Tecnipor - Gomes & Taveira Lda., Vialam – Indústrias Metalúrgicas e Metalomecânicas, Lda, Hilti Portugal-Produtos e Serviços, Lda.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

EBR Strengthening Technique for Concrete, Long-Term Behaviour and Historical Survey

Epoxy bonded steel plates (externally bonded reinforcemen: EBR) for the strengthening of concrete structures were introduced to the construction industry in the late 1960s, and the use of fibre reinforced polymers (FRPs) was introduced in the 1990s, which means that these techniques have already been used in construction for 50 and 25 years, respectively. In the first part of the paper, a historical survey of the development and introduction of these strengthening techniques into the construction industry are presented. The monitoring of such applications in construction is very important and gives more confidence to this strengthening technique. Therefore, in the second part of the paper, two long-term monitoring campaigns over an extraordinarily long duration will be presented. Firstly, a 47-year monitoring campaign on a concrete beam with an epoxy bonded steel plate and, secondly, a 20-year monitoring campaign on a road bridge with epoxy bonded CFRP (carbon fibre reinforced polymers) strips are described. The paper is an expanded version of the paper presented at the SMAR2017 Conference